spdep - Spatial Dependence: Weighting Schemes, Statistics
A collection of functions to create spatial weights matrix
objects from polygon 'contiguities', from point patterns by
distance and tessellations, for summarizing these objects, and
for permitting their use in spatial data analysis, including
regional aggregation by minimum spanning tree; a collection of
tests for spatial 'autocorrelation', including global 'Morans
I' and 'Gearys C' proposed by 'Cliff' and 'Ord' (1973, ISBN:
0850860369) and (1981, ISBN: 0850860814), 'Hubert/Mantel'
general cross product statistic, Empirical Bayes estimates and
'Assunção/Reis' (1999)
<doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19990830)18:16%3C2147::AID-SIM179%3E3.0.CO;2-I>
Index, 'Getis/Ord' G ('Getis' and 'Ord' 1992)
<doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x> and multicoloured join
count statistics, 'APLE' ('Li et al.' )
<doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.2007.00708.x>, local 'Moran's I',
'Gearys C' ('Anselin' 1995)
<doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00338.x> and 'Getis/Ord' G
('Ord' and 'Getis' 1995)
<doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00912.x>, 'saddlepoint'
approximations ('Tiefelsdorf' 2002)
<doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.2002.tb01084.x> and exact tests for
global and local 'Moran's I' ('Bivand et al.' 2009)
<doi:10.1016/j.csda.2008.07.021> and 'LOSH' local indicators of
spatial heteroscedasticity ('Ord' and 'Getis')
<doi:10.1007/s00168-011-0492-y>. The implementation of most of
these measures is described in 'Bivand' and 'Wong' (2018)
<doi:10.1007/s11749-018-0599-x>, with further extensions in
'Bivand' (2022) <doi:10.1111/gean.12319>. 'Lagrange' multiplier
tests for spatial dependence in linear models are provided
('Anselin et al'. 1996) <doi:10.1016/0166-0462(95)02111-6>, as
are 'Rao' score tests for hypothesised spatial 'Durbin' models
based on linear models ('Koley' and 'Bera' 2023)
<doi:10.1080/17421772.2023.2256810>. Additions in 2024 include
Local Indicators for Categorical Data based on 'Carrer et al.'
(2021) <doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105306> and 'Bivand et al.'
(2017) <doi:10.1016/j.spasta.2017.03.003>; also Weighted
Multivariate Spatial Autocorrelation Measures ('Bavaud' 2024)
<doi:10.1111/gean.12390>. <doi:10.1080/17421772.2023.2256810>.
A local indicators for categorical data (LICD) implementation
based on 'Carrer et al.' (2021) <doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105306>
and 'Bivand et al.' (2017) <doi:10.1016/j.spasta.2017.03.003>
was added in 1.3-7. Multivariate 'spatialdelta' ('Bavaud' 2024)
<doi:10.1111/gean.12390> was added in 1.3-13 ('Bivand' 2025
<doi:10.26034/la.cdclsl.2025.8343>). 'Moran' scatterplot
enhancements were contributed by 'René' 'Westerholt' in 1.4-3
<doi:10.5281/zenodo.10897792>. From 'spdep' and 'spatialreg'
versions >= 1.2-1, the model fitting functions previously
present in this package are defunct in 'spdep' and may be found
in 'spatialreg'.
